tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-89573589204334181792024-03-02T09:28:36.571-08:00Byzantium Novum MilitariumThis blog is devoted to the military history of the Byzantine Era, to 1453.Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.comBlogger375125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-50455006366499889482018-06-07T10:05:00.002-07:002018-06-07T10:05:41.190-07:00Byzantine Empire - 1350 and later in 1403<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-f2X1LuHskX8/WxllYL_BdDI/AAAAAAAAGA0/Smmu3XG7E_MXx3bjATkHYy0QkW6RG38OACEwYBhgL/s1600/Byzan.%2BEmp.%2B1350.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="381" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-f2X1LuHskX8/WxllYL_BdDI/AAAAAAAAGA0/Smmu3XG7E_MXx3bjATkHYy0QkW6RG38OACEwYBhgL/s320/Byzan.%2BEmp.%2B1350.jpg" width="254" /></a></div>
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<br />Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-2244413902434744042018-06-06T20:05:00.000-07:002018-06-06T20:05:01.737-07:001. Undershot water wheel; 2. Overshot Water Wheel, 3. Water Mill Gears, 4. Water Gear Shaft. <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-zNAmVV2LGnA/Wxie_VaIhrI/AAAAAAAAGAM/gSW4u0nUdQYwCTzDIvpHmQY1LqRt8IhDgCLcBGAs/s1600/Undershot%2Bwater%2Bwheel.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="389" data-original-width="480" height="259" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-zNAmVV2LGnA/Wxie_VaIhrI/AAAAAAAAGAM/gSW4u0nUdQYwCTzDIvpHmQY1LqRt8IhDgCLcBGAs/s320/Undershot%2Bwater%2Bwheel.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-z3gEquKQhMM/WxifXi-O-_I/AAAAAAAAGAU/umaSboGiW6wmxDuh0pYomK4dD647kD4bQCLcBGAs/s1600/Overshot%2Bwater%2Bwheel.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="405" data-original-width="480" height="270" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-z3gEquKQhMM/WxifXi-O-_I/AAAAAAAAGAU/umaSboGiW6wmxDuh0pYomK4dD647kD4bQCLcBGAs/s320/Overshot%2Bwater%2Bwheel.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/--X9NhKJXnSE/Wxifpy_NzOI/AAAAAAAAGAc/Hj6R2yK676g97ScCPzAE-3kzRgk7WOAhQCLcBGAs/s1600/Water%2Bmill%2Bgears.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="425" height="320" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/--X9NhKJXnSE/Wxifpy_NzOI/AAAAAAAAGAc/Hj6R2yK676g97ScCPzAE-3kzRgk7WOAhQCLcBGAs/s320/Water%2Bmill%2Bgears.jpg" width="283" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-5VKUOROPSac/Wxigc8BP2xI/AAAAAAAAGAo/tMdyoHZPBP8yWE134LWBBpAifQxsMMURACLcBGAs/s1600/Water%2Bmill%2Bshaft.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="341" data-original-width="480" height="227" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-5VKUOROPSac/Wxigc8BP2xI/AAAAAAAAGAo/tMdyoHZPBP8yWE134LWBBpAifQxsMMURACLcBGAs/s320/Water%2Bmill%2Bshaft.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.32px;">1. Undershot water wheel; 2. Overshot Water Wheel, 3. Water Mill Gears, 4. Water Gear Shaft. Some early ideas leading to the thought of using water power to accelerate production over human labor animal labor.</span>Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-80336016264079498382018-06-06T19:50:00.000-07:002018-06-06T19:50:34.207-07:001. Swing Beam Pump; 2.Double Bucket Wheel Pump; 3. Drum Pump; 4. Persian Wheel Pump. <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NyX5ylDwDiU/Wxica71mOBI/AAAAAAAAF_o/tf9uBGXDsxc1QdT5MCEJMqJkAP5P0EFUQCLcBGAs/s1600/Persian%2BWheel%2BPump.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="337" data-original-width="480" height="224" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NyX5ylDwDiU/Wxica71mOBI/AAAAAAAAF_o/tf9uBGXDsxc1QdT5MCEJMqJkAP5P0EFUQCLcBGAs/s320/Persian%2BWheel%2BPump.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-UjAQlwtwOxQ/Wxicn7ligQI/AAAAAAAAF_s/o2HMQ9bc4NY1EZqiyBvIcgDTXt2qzLS6wCLcBGAs/s1600/Drum%2BPump.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="360" data-original-width="480" height="240" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-UjAQlwtwOxQ/Wxicn7ligQI/AAAAAAAAF_s/o2HMQ9bc4NY1EZqiyBvIcgDTXt2qzLS6wCLcBGAs/s320/Drum%2BPump.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-c57xBmoFfXo/Wxicy-BEA-I/AAAAAAAAF_0/3iZK1YJT59cnEZIRvrR29i4UZ3ZjOLKRwCLcBGAs/s1600/Double%2BBucket%2BWheel%2BPump.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="360" data-original-width="480" height="240" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-c57xBmoFfXo/Wxicy-BEA-I/AAAAAAAAF_0/3iZK1YJT59cnEZIRvrR29i4UZ3ZjOLKRwCLcBGAs/s320/Double%2BBucket%2BWheel%2BPump.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-3VmUun7QH4k/WxidBKaQe5I/AAAAAAAAF_8/n3ydpXTQi94XQxEIUm8em7ghr_u1IZOKACLcBGAs/s1600/Swing%2BBeam%2BPump.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="360" data-original-width="268" height="320" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-3VmUun7QH4k/WxidBKaQe5I/AAAAAAAAF_8/n3ydpXTQi94XQxEIUm8em7ghr_u1IZOKACLcBGAs/s320/Swing%2BBeam%2BPump.jpg" width="238" /></a></div>
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<span data-offset-key="7arbi-0-0" style="font-family: inherit;">1. Swing Beam Pump; 2.Double Bucket Wheel Pump; 3. Drum Pump; 4. Persian Wheel Pump.</span></div>
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<span data-offset-key="7k808-0-0" style="font-family: inherit;">These are four more pump types used in the Roman world. All these designs led to even more and better advancement in the modern day.</span></div>
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Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-90604586732544484842018-06-03T02:43:00.004-07:002018-06-03T02:43:43.951-07:00Tower and Gate of St. Paul, Island of Rhodes<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-T91M5fqfO-0/WxO2wex3QiI/AAAAAAAAF_Q/e5E5OfoEEHEOrfdtVqw21jZ8Jg8lAze8ACLcBGAs/s1600/DocFile%2B%252842%2529-3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="298" height="320" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-T91M5fqfO-0/WxO2wex3QiI/AAAAAAAAF_Q/e5E5OfoEEHEOrfdtVqw21jZ8Jg8lAze8ACLcBGAs/s320/DocFile%2B%252842%2529-3.jpg" width="198" /></a></div>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px;">The </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortification" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px; text-decoration: none;" title="Fortification">fortifications</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px;"> of the town of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodes_(city)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px; text-decoration: none;" title="Rhodes (city)">Rhodes</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px;"> are shaped like a defensive crescent around the medieval town and consist mostly in a </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_fort" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px; text-decoration: none;" title="Star fort">modern fortification</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px;"> composed of a huge wall made of an embankment encased in stone, equipped with </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarp_(fortification)" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px; text-decoration: none;" title="Scarp (fortification)">scarp</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px;">, </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastions" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px; text-decoration: none;" title="Bastions">bastions</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moat" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px; text-decoration: none;" title="Moat">moat</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px;">, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterscarp" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px; text-decoration: none;" title="Counterscarp">counterscarp</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px;">, and </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacis" style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px; text-decoration: none;" title="Glacis">glacis</a>. The portion of fortifications facing the harbor is instead composed of a crenelated wall. On the mole's towers and defensive forts are found. <span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 18px; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The 'Tower and Gate of St. Paul' with the 'Post of France' is shown at the bottom of the drawing. The 'Gate of St. Paul 'gave access to the 'Mandraki Harbor.' </span>Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-60431931086484667182018-06-01T14:37:00.001-07:002018-06-01T14:37:44.405-07:00Dioptra of Heron<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-W_VDeTCpsRk/WxG8Vd_X56I/AAAAAAAAF-4/_aheivRC86o3j5t5CkNJ7CM6nV8THWEdQCLcBGAs/s1600/Diopta%2Bof%2BHeron.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="360" data-original-width="330" height="320" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-W_VDeTCpsRk/WxG8Vd_X56I/AAAAAAAAF-4/_aheivRC86o3j5t5CkNJ7CM6nV8THWEdQCLcBGAs/s320/Diopta%2Bof%2BHeron.jpg" width="293" /></a></div>
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Drawing of a "Diopta by Heron," by Marcus Audens.<br /><div style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em;">
A <b>dioptra</b> (sometimes also named <b>dioptre</b> or <b>diopter</b> from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="el">διόπτρα</span>) is a classical<a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hellenistic civilization"></a> astronomical and <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveying_instrument" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Surveying instrument">surveying instrument</a>, dating from the 3rd century BCE. The <b>dioptra</b> was a sighting tube or, alternatively, a rod with a sight at both ends, attached to a stand. If fitted with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protractor" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Protractor">protractors</a>, it could be used to measure <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Angle">angles</a>.</div>
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<a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_astronomy" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Greek astronomy">Greek astronomers</a> used the dioptra to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrometry" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Astrometry">measure the positions of stars</a>; both <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Euclid">Euclid</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geminus" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Geminus">Geminus</a> refer to the dioptra in their astronomical works. By the time of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> (2nd century CE), it was obsolete as an astronomical instrument, having been replaced by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Armillary sphere">armillary sphere</a>.</div>
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It continued in use as an effective <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveying" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Surveying">surveying</a> tool. Adapted to surveying, the dioptra is similar to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodolite" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Theodolite">theodolite</a>, or surveyor's transit, which dates to the sixteenth century. It is a more accurate version of the "g<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groma_surveying" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Groma surveying">roma</a>."</div>
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The dioptra may have been sophisticated enough, for example, to construct a tunnel through two opposite points in a mountain. There is some speculation that it may have been used to build the <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eupalinian_aqueduct" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Eupalinian aqueduct">Eupalinian aqueduct</a>. Called "one of the greatest engineering achievements of ancient times," it is a tunnel 1,036 meters (4,000 ft) long, "excavated through <a class="new" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mount_Kastro&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background: none; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Kastro (page does not exist)">Mount Kastro</a> on the Greek island of <a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samos_Island" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Samos Island">Samos</a>, in the 6th century BCE" during the reign of<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycrates" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Polycrates">Polycrates</a>. Scholars disagree whether the dioptra was available that early.</div>
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An entire book about the construction and surveying usage of the dioptra is credited to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hero of Alexandria">Hero of Alexandria</a> (also known as Heron; a brief description of the book is available online; see Lahanas link, below). Heron was "one of history’s most ingenious <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Engineer">engineers</a> and applied <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mathematician">mathematicians</a>."</div>
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The dioptra was used extensively on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply)" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Aqueduct (water supply)">aqueduct</a> building projects. The screw turns on several different parts of the instrument made it easy to calibrate for very precise measurements</div>
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The dioptra was replaced as a surveying instrument by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodolite" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Theodolite">theodolite</a>.</div>
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Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-78317612441245609512018-05-31T17:30:00.002-07:002018-05-31T17:30:22.817-07:00Roman Groma<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-J1IotF0Q0TQ/WxCSTqTC0aI/AAAAAAAAF6Q/WFdeblMLwcU-qozpn2R_s1VgwN1C80JYwCLcBGAs/s1600/Groma.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="296" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-J1IotF0Q0TQ/WxCSTqTC0aI/AAAAAAAAF6Q/WFdeblMLwcU-qozpn2R_s1VgwN1C80JYwCLcBGAs/s320/Groma.jpg" width="197" /></a></div>
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<br />Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-49864615610297931732018-05-31T17:20:00.003-07:002018-05-31T17:22:42.361-07:00Chorbates #2<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-rDLXW1sjVXI/WxCQpQD4Z2I/AAAAAAAAF6E/wP6H3HTajMQASF2FTZMh54sgkTk5URheACLcBGAs/s1600/Chorobates%2B2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="270" data-original-width="360" height="240" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-rDLXW1sjVXI/WxCQpQD4Z2I/AAAAAAAAF6E/wP6H3HTajMQASF2FTZMh54sgkTk5URheACLcBGAs/s320/Chorobates%2B2.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
Chorbates #2 - Marcus AudensJimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-14056040700888165872018-05-31T10:00:00.000-07:002018-05-31T10:00:07.716-07:00Liechtenstein Castle<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-tG_6DOWCd90/WxAoyqAX4JI/AAAAAAAAF50/-pIPhLuirW42WtD-pBG2wnS5ANX7xfETACLcBGAs/s1600/2_13_07_scan141149580.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1216" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-tG_6DOWCd90/WxAoyqAX4JI/AAAAAAAAF50/-pIPhLuirW42WtD-pBG2wnS5ANX7xfETACLcBGAs/s320/2_13_07_scan141149580.jpg" width="243" /></a></div>
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Liechtenstein Castle.<br />The Castle Of Liechtenstein</div>
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Ancestral castle of the princes of Liechtenstein</div>
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Hugo of Liechtenstein built the castle between 1130 and 1135, which came to be in possession of the Stadeck family by 1295, by use of a marriage contract.</div>
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The castle often changed hands between different royal families like the Dukes of Cilli and King Matthias Corvinius which granted Jan (Hans) Holuberzi the upkeep. The houses of Khevenhiller and Aichelberg owned the castle since 1592 including Prince Johann Josef the 1st of Liechtenstein, who acquired the castle from Prince Poniantovsky and returned the ownership of the houses of Liechtenstein in 1807, which is still current.</div>
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Monument of Romanic architecture</div>
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Major parts of the Romanic castle, originating from the first building phase circa 1130/1135, are still surviving and able to be visited. With this Romanic settlement, the castle today counts as one of the rare Romanic surviving secular buildings of the 12th century in Europe.</div>
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From 1508 to 1588 the castle was occupied by the Tyrolian house of Freisleben. In 1529 the castle was initially destroyed by the Osmanians and was rebuilt from 1533 – this leads to the loss and sale of the ownership of the castle in 1567.</div>
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The castle and ownership came into the possession of the Duke of Khevenhiller between 1592 and 1664 during which the castle was extensively extended under the Duke Franz Christoph Khevenhiller, Baron of Aichelberg. In 1664 his family tree was drawn up in which the background consisted of a rendition of the castle of Liechtenstein.</div>
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Alas, the castle was once again largely destroyed by the Osmanians in 1683 which rendered the castle almost completely uninhabitable. The Gothic entrance was allotted to the use of stables, until being razed to the ground in 1809.</div>
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Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-91856745415349993422018-05-31T09:44:00.003-07:002018-05-31T09:44:43.141-07:00Chorbates (leveling Instrument)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-cy2Ryo69ot4/WxAmD-6VTbI/AAAAAAAAF5U/611orwzZc1wqgRNobfq01rilVJznP4abgCLcBGAs/s1600/Chorobates.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="272" data-original-width="360" height="241" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-cy2Ryo69ot4/WxAmD-6VTbI/AAAAAAAAF5U/611orwzZc1wqgRNobfq01rilVJznP4abgCLcBGAs/s320/Chorobates.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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The 'Chorobates,' described by Vitruvius in Book VII of the Architecture, was used to measure horizontal planes and was especially important in the construction of aqueducts. <span style="line-height: 19.32px;">Similar to modern spirit levels, the 'Chorobates' consisted of a beam of wood 6 m in length held by 2 supporting legs and equipped with 2 plumb lines at each end. The legs were joined to the beam by two diagonal rods with carved notches. If the notches corresponding to the plumb lines matched on both sid</span><span class="text_exposed_show" style="display: inline; font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.32px;">es, it showed that the beam was level. On top of the beam, a groove or channel was carved. If the condition was too windy for the plumb bobs to work effectively, the surveyor could pour water into the groove and measure the plane by checking the water level. </span><span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.32px;">Vitruvius instructs that the water level groove was to be "five feet long, one digit wide, and a digit and a half deep". By using two or more 'Chorobates,' established levelly, the vertical distance between instruments could be established by sighting along the depth of the uphill instrument, to a rod placed atop the lower 'Chorobates.'</span></div>
Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-36998445916514280352018-05-31T09:23:00.004-07:002018-05-31T09:28:08.766-07:00Libella, Leveling Tool<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Ltrq2t8qWQg/WxAhPFadbJI/AAAAAAAAF48/8UdTpf72aoMTbNFfSjHWUbNm5JT39w79QCLcBGAs/s1600/Libella.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="280" data-original-width="360" height="248" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Ltrq2t8qWQg/WxAhPFadbJI/AAAAAAAAF48/8UdTpf72aoMTbNFfSjHWUbNm5JT39w79QCLcBGAs/s320/Libella.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span data-offset-key="f40hr-0-0" style="font-family: inherit;">Roman architects were skilled in this kind of leveling work, for which they used sophisticated tools. Besides the ordinary level (Libella), similar to the one used today by carpenters, they used devices such as a groma, chorobates, and dioptra.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Given the elementary means, materials en tools which were available, it is remarkable to see the precision with which the Roman aqueducts were laid out. The mean gradient of a Roman aqueduct was something between 0,15 - 0,30 %. </span></div>
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<span data-offset-key="cn7vr-0-0" style="font-family: inherit;">Additional resources</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Another leveling instrument used by the Romans was the simple "Libella." It consisted of a frame in the shape of the letter A, with the addition of a horizontal bar on top (see photo). From the apex, a plumb line was suspended that coincided with a mark on the lower crossbar when the instrument was level. Other marks could have been added to indicate other slopes, but there is no evidence that this was done (Hauck, 1988:43). </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Literature:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">> Moreno (2004): Roman Surveying (from the Spanish Traianus website)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;">> M.J.T. Lewis (2001): Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome</span></div>
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<span data-offset-key="5qn8i-0-0" style="font-family: inherit;">> O.A.W. Dilke (1971): Roman Land Surveyors</span></div>
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<span data-offset-key="9l0de-0-0" style="font-family: inherit;">Roman military surveying, from YouTube</span></div>
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Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-16401279270166301352018-05-24T09:54:00.001-07:002018-05-24T09:54:06.738-07:00Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-48014369055189868612018-05-07T10:43:00.000-07:002018-05-07T10:43:36.562-07:00Greek Merchantman<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-R003FiidlmI/WvCP_-XCAjI/AAAAAAAAFzc/cLMsHLhbG10-IThGZgwQ6WWw99yEZ55_ACLcBGAs/s1600/DocFile%2B%252831%2529-1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="391" data-original-width="480" height="260" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-R003FiidlmI/WvCP_-XCAjI/AAAAAAAAFzc/cLMsHLhbG10-IThGZgwQ6WWw99yEZ55_ACLcBGAs/s320/DocFile%2B%252831%2529-1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-43340040332705619582018-05-07T10:39:00.000-07:002018-05-07T10:39:09.037-07:00Greek Warship<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Jn_snpWHeIo/WvCO6pMqx1I/AAAAAAAAFzU/XBqw0jEX3hcmnEH1qT1fxp61fNGw2YQHQCLcBGAs/s1600/Greek%2BWarship%2B2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="264" data-original-width="360" height="234" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Jn_snpWHeIo/WvCO6pMqx1I/AAAAAAAAFzU/XBqw0jEX3hcmnEH1qT1fxp61fNGw2YQHQCLcBGAs/s320/Greek%2BWarship%2B2.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-18355302402040911702018-05-07T10:30:00.004-07:002018-05-07T10:30:53.872-07:00The Bark Provencale<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ex-QJJDBdZ0/WvCMqlVDbZI/AAAAAAAAFzI/JR3rjHX_j-EK81RRIXGGAgii2fE-7c_aACLcBGAs/s1600/DocFile%2B%252810%2529-11.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="418" data-original-width="480" height="278" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ex-QJJDBdZ0/WvCMqlVDbZI/AAAAAAAAFzI/JR3rjHX_j-EK81RRIXGGAgii2fE-7c_aACLcBGAs/s320/DocFile%2B%252810%2529-11.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-64089283818390475902016-05-18T21:16:00.003-07:002016-05-18T21:16:51.051-07:00Roman Siege Tower - Side<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-dR6qpS4b32o/Vz09rZKr-4I/AAAAAAAAFKY/-zUqLN8f0CAguSe7RwYp1MQ5BwwxJ_KGgCLcB/s1600/P1060590.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-dR6qpS4b32o/Vz09rZKr-4I/AAAAAAAAFKY/-zUqLN8f0CAguSe7RwYp1MQ5BwwxJ_KGgCLcB/s640/P1060590.JPG" width="298" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Model put together by Marcus Audens</td></tr>
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Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-2427557127130491072016-05-18T21:13:00.003-07:002016-05-18T21:13:50.377-07:00Roman Siege Tower - Rear<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Z-og0ntijwU/Vz09FqfP41I/AAAAAAAAFKQ/8MyojIfTJXInuLTXAWTebCp41XR45q3hACLcB/s1600/P1060589.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Z-og0ntijwU/Vz09FqfP41I/AAAAAAAAFKQ/8MyojIfTJXInuLTXAWTebCp41XR45q3hACLcB/s640/P1060589.JPG" width="248" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Model put together by Marcus Audens</td></tr>
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<br />Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-67004661023186397212016-05-18T21:09:00.002-07:002016-05-18T21:11:08.985-07:00Roman Siege Tower - Front<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-sulsQ3rdGY4/Vz08LGCUmwI/AAAAAAAAFKI/guc8XMyc7pke9C7TMl9OEbWjMckXTOHRwCLcB/s1600/P1060584.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-sulsQ3rdGY4/Vz08LGCUmwI/AAAAAAAAFKI/guc8XMyc7pke9C7TMl9OEbWjMckXTOHRwCLcB/s640/P1060584.JPG" width="232" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Model of the Siege Tower, made by Marcus Audens</td></tr>
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<br />Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-90854285182955199672016-01-20T11:39:00.002-08:002016-01-20T11:39:47.905-08:00Saalburg Fort, ca A.D. 121<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-V-pE-hTx3Cw/VpakgYtRvfI/AAAAAAAAHz8/Qf3LAJLggus/w553-h709-no/P1060163.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-V-pE-hTx3Cw/VpakgYtRvfI/AAAAAAAAHz8/Qf3LAJLggus/w553-h709-no/P1060163.JPG" width="249" /></a></div>
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One of the corners on the Palesade<br />
Saalburg Fort, ca A.D. 121<br />
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Margarethttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12100301034661641951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-84032546863447485782016-01-20T11:36:00.002-08:002016-01-20T11:36:21.766-08:00Saalburg Fort ca A.D.121 Diagram<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNAdYFPdRdz-CpElu2cCeN35iS1CMHzl-q7CD0hEpooYllrvfwOuJhyfeEwHdQY6gCrO92wTFDw_xn1aTUEVcLVZc5_zVY9RHDkinI_GB8uHqMAF3zpy2kl3FBx5C__kuuOhW0OsaNgp8/w552-h709-no/P1060164.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNAdYFPdRdz-CpElu2cCeN35iS1CMHzl-q7CD0hEpooYllrvfwOuJhyfeEwHdQY6gCrO92wTFDw_xn1aTUEVcLVZc5_zVY9RHDkinI_GB8uHqMAF3zpy2kl3FBx5C__kuuOhW0OsaNgp8/w552-h709-no/P1060164.JPG" width="249" /></a></div>
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Saalborg Fort ca A.D. 121<br />
1. Headquarters<br />
2. Commander's Residence<br />
3. Barracks<br />
4. Workshops</div>
Margarethttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12100301034661641951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-72963840728081172822016-01-20T11:23:00.002-08:002016-01-20T11:23:44.872-08:00Dura-Europos<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-uJY6pQaHEyA/VpakhfhNbXI/AAAAAAAAHz0/JR9kMEb0NYQ/w516-h709-no/P1060165.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-uJY6pQaHEyA/VpakhfhNbXI/AAAAAAAAHz0/JR9kMEb0NYQ/w516-h709-no/P1060165.JPG" width="290" /></a></div>
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Dura-Europos<br />
The Romans seized this city, on a cliff above the Euphrates River, from the Parthians in the second century A.D.<br />
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The Romans erected walls similar to the above in several places along the "Limes" where the terrain or the ease of a break-through by barbarians outside the boundaries of Roman lands was most likely. In other areas, towers were used.</div>
Margarethttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12100301034661641951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-74311629400767242662016-01-20T11:10:00.001-08:002016-01-20T11:10:25.198-08:00Lambaesis<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Rome established this military fort in approximately AD 81. It later served as army headquarters in North Africa.</div>
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Margarethttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12100301034661641951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-15528520545158923442016-01-20T10:22:00.001-08:002016-01-20T10:38:49.249-08:00Antonine Wall<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-NO8O6VuDBW8/Vp_PWF2sGNI/AAAAAAAAHzg/a4PEl1GJzCo/w947-h709-no/P1060168.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="298" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-NO8O6VuDBW8/Vp_PWF2sGNI/AAAAAAAAHzg/a4PEl1GJzCo/w947-h709-no/P1060168.JPG" width="400" /></a></div>
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The "Antonine Wall", built of stone, turf, and wood in 142 AD, it pushed the Northern Frontier beyond Hadrian's Wall for some twenty years. It was placed across which what is now known as the "Central Belt of Scotland" between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. It spanned 63 kilometers (39 miles) and was 3 meters (10 feet) high and 5 meters (16 feet) wide.</div>
Margarethttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12100301034661641951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-86677317368794070912015-07-08T21:36:00.002-07:002015-07-08T21:36:26.843-07:00(B) Qasr Hallabat, Umayyad, Jordan<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-bvTjpN27Jjg/U62b7dq5RBI/AAAAAAAAD9M/rkXS2tSCPag/s1600/4F8229C2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-bvTjpN27Jjg/U62b7dq5RBI/AAAAAAAAD9M/rkXS2tSCPag/s320/4F8229C2.jpg" width="238" /></a></div>
<br />Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-37853678626597146242015-07-08T09:23:00.001-07:002015-07-08T09:23:08.023-07:00Eastern European Castle Ruin<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFNhLDUONNVoRl8d0654YQvP5GgKbO1YdX3OfcCeZXV5XO0TSVVwxUP6t5cxF2rovpWTrvW7PCNNm4nQYTDGKe1DaNyp-vdI9uxim-K4X_WDK_whzRlvzx9HTU_kXFD4YjjdFEeIk0FXA/s1600/5627E609.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFNhLDUONNVoRl8d0654YQvP5GgKbO1YdX3OfcCeZXV5XO0TSVVwxUP6t5cxF2rovpWTrvW7PCNNm4nQYTDGKe1DaNyp-vdI9uxim-K4X_WDK_whzRlvzx9HTU_kXFD4YjjdFEeIk0FXA/s1600/5627E609.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">This is an Eastern European Castle ruin featuring the Main Entrance roadway through the upper ward. The church is the lower section of the ruin, and what remais of the keep (donjon) looms above it, pointing to the sky.</td></tr>
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<br />Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8957358920433418179.post-52806758060784434132014-09-18T04:57:00.001-07:002014-09-18T04:57:09.134-07:00Manjaniq (Early) # 4<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-lmF0H6gIK1Q/VBrIPobokbI/AAAAAAAAESM/mozhueSIxrM/s1600/P1030808.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-lmF0H6gIK1Q/VBrIPobokbI/AAAAAAAAESM/mozhueSIxrM/s1600/P1030808.JPG" height="367" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />Jimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00389900491477305906noreply@blogger.com0